This project will combine library research and possibly your own original observations of rocks. The topic chosen should embrace some type of geologic problem. In other words, the project will be an exercise in the scientific method: 1) Initial work, by you or others (in the literature), defines a geologic problem. 2) A number of possible explanations, hypotheses, are formulated (by you or others). 3) These hypotheses are tested by new observations and reasoning (by you or others).

Format of an original research paper:

• Abstract: Brief, ~1/2 page max., summary of the findings; not setting the stage for the paper. (10 points)
• Introduction: General description of the problem (10 points - Geologic setting, statement of the problem, hypotheses, contribution of this paper)
• Observations: Methods (but don't explain how machines such as XRD or XRF work), what you saw or measured. No geological interpretation here, only data, although instrumental interpretation is okay, such as identifying peaks on an XRD pattern (20 points - Useful, significant/relevant, sufficient)
• Discussion: Integrate what you saw with what others have found. Consider the various hypotheses in the light of the data (20 points - Consideration of the various hypotheses in the light of the observations of this paper)
• References Cited: Use the same format as Geological Society of America Bulletin (10 points - correct & complete).
• Figures: Maps, Sketches, Photos, Graphs, All should have complete captions and be referenced in the text by number (10 points - Useful, good captions, reference in the text)
• Writing Style and Grammar (20 points)

Format of a literature search paper:

• Abstract: Brief, ~1/2 page max., summary of the findings (10 points)
• Introduction: General description of the problem (10 points - Geologic setting, statement of the problem, hypotheses, contribution of this paper)
• Observations: What the main observations of various authors were: observations used to help solve the problem (20 points - Useful, significant/relevant, sufficient)
• Discussion: Consider the various hypotheses in the light of the data. You can formulate your own ideas or summarize those from other papers. You'd better reference almost every bit of the paper… (20 points - Discussion of the various hypotheses)
• References Cited: Use the same format as Geological Society of America Bulletin (10 points - correct & complete).
• Figures: Maps, Sketches, Photos, Graphs, All should have complete captions and be referenced in the text by number (10 points - Useful, good captions, reference in the text)
• Writing Style and Grammar (20 points)

Expectations for paper:

1. Length:
   • The total length of the text of the paper, not counting figures and references, should be about 5 pages, double spaced.
2. Style and Content:
   • Both style and content are important: In conveying your ideas it is always important to write clearly and concisely paying attention to grammar and spelling. I expect your papers to be well-written. This will require that you proofread your work carefully. Avoid careless mistakes.
   • Style must be absorbed. Although this document notes some common questions and errors, the best way to learn the correct style is to read scientific papers. The Bressler room has stacks of GSA Bulletins. Pick up any one of those to learn the correct style you should use. The only difference is layout: your Tables and Figures will go at the end, not interspersed with the text.
3. Referencing
   • Be very careful not to plagiarize. Acknowledge all sources of information. When in doubt about how to paraphrase information, ask me for suggestions. Use at least two references if doing your own research and at least 4 references if doing a literature survey and be sure to include them in a list of references cited.
   • Citations almost never use quotes in science. You just cite the facts from some reference, not the exact words. No exact quotations for class papers.
   • All references must be cited, and only cited references should be in the list.
   • References cited as sources for figures should be included in the list.
   • Personal communication
     • Only use this citation style if the thing you are told is not published anywhere. If it is, look up the actual reference. So if George Mustoe tells you something about the Chuckanut Sandstone, look up references about that formation and use those as your source.
     • If you must use this citation style, you would write (Mustoe, pers. comm., 2004). You would not include anything in the References Cited list for this.
   • Geological maps (as figures) must be cited, topographic maps should not be cited.
   • No references from the Internet are allowed.
   • All geology lab computers now have EndNote 6 installed, a very useful program that works along with Microsoft Word that can make citations and reference lists very easy. If you use it, you should still proofread your citations carefully; as in "real life", you alone are responsible for errors in your work.
   • Referencing style for citations:
     • Do not use footnotes. Instead use in-text citations. Examples:
       • Their subsolvus character indicates that they crystallized from relatively water-rich magmas, i.e., under conditions propitious for hydrothermal alterations to develop (Bonin et al., 1978).
       • Different possible processes have been proposed for the interaction of slab-derived melts with the overlying mantle wedge, including decompression melting of the mantle resulting in mixing of slab and mantle derived melts (Yogodzinski et al., 1995) and slab-melt/peridotite reaction and hybridization (Keleman 1990, 1995; Kelemen et al, 1993).
   • Referencing style for References Cited list
     • Use the style of the Geological Society of America Bulletin for your References Cited. Here are some examples; look at a recent issue of GSA Bulletin for more:
     • Journal articles:
       Author, date, Title of article: Journal, volume, pages.
       Selverstone, J., Axen, G. J., and Bartley, J. M., 1995, Fluid inclusion constraints on the kinematics of footwall uplift beneath the Brenner Line normal fault, Eastern Alps: Tectonics, v. 14, p. 264-278.
     • Books:
       Author, Date, Title of Book (edition): Place of publication, Publisher, pages.
       Drever, J. I., 1988, The geochemistry of natural waters (second edition): Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice Hall, 437 p.
     • Edited Books:
       Authors, date, Title of article, in Editors, Title of Edited Book, pages.
       Zimmerman, J., Axel, R.S., 1989, Tectonic setting of olistostromal units and associated rocks in the Talladega slate belt, Alabama Appalachinas, in Horton, J. W., and Rast, N., eds., Melanges and olistostromes of the Appalachians: Geological Society of America Special Paper 228, p. 247-269
     • Geologic maps:
       Author, date, Map name: Place of publication, Publisher, Scale.
       Staikopoulos, G. and Efstratiades, G., 1987, Geological map of Greece, Akhladhokhorion sheet: Athens, Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploration, scale 1:50,000.
4. Figures
   • All drawings, maps, graphs, photos, etc. are "Figures". Numerical or text information in a table is not (it's a Table).
   • Figures should be referred to sequentially in the text. Examples of figure references:
     • "Figure 1 shows..." (this style is not preferred) or
     • "Gold is found in several locations (Fig. 1)" (much better)
     • "Gold is found in several locations (see Fig. 1)" (bad)
     • "Gold is found in several locations (refer to Fig. 1)" (bad)
   • If a sentence has some information from a reference, and related information from that reference is in a figure, how do you cite both? LIke this:
     • "MORB compositions are generally tholeiitic (Fig. 3)." (and in the figure 3 caption, you would cite the reference)
   • When citing figures, use GSA Bulletin style, as shown in second example above. This means, abbreviate to "Fig." and captialize. If you are referring to more than one, write for example "(Figs. 2 and 3)"
   • You should put the figures themselves at the end of the paper (after the References Cited); they do not need to be embedded within the text.
   • All figures must have descriptive, useful captions. Indicate briefly what the reader should notice or conclude from the figure. Figures adopted from other sources must be referenced, using the same style as described in C above. For example:
     • Figure 2. Rhyolite viscosity as a function of temperature. Note the decrease is small relative to the effects of H₂O (Smith, 2001). (if the figure is included without substantial alterations)
     • Figure 3. T-X(H₂O) phase diagram for CMASH system. Only reactions mentioned in the text are shown (after Spear, 2000). (if the figure has been altered)

Possible Topics for original research projects

These are only a set of some topics that have been done in the past - I encourage you to find something that is particularly interesting to you. (However, paleomagnetic techniques are, in almost every case, not useful for petrology):

1. Major element chemistry of some volcanic or plutonic or metamorphic rocks to decipher their origin
   • Wells Creek volcanics, Chilliwack volcanics, Lake Ann Stock, Mt. Baker volcanic rocks, Glacier Peak volcanic rocks
2. Origin of certain rocks or textures with reference to specific samples
   • 1) Rapakivi texture; 2) Magmatic foliation; 3) Layering in mafic/ultramafic rocks
3. Controversial topics in Igneous Petrology
   • Crystal settling: does it occur in magmas? can it explain differentiation trends in igneous suites?
   • Fractional crystallization: how important is it?
   • The "room problem" in granite petrology: how are granitic plutons emplaced into the crust? all at once? in small batches? as diapirs or as dikes?
   • The "Granite Controversy": the mid-century debate on the origin of granite. The magmatists (e.g., Norman Bowen) vs. the "granitizers" (e.g., H.H. Read)
   • Did large-scale volcanism cause the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction?
   • Are layered mafic intrusions caused by meteorite impacts?
   • Do mantle plumes exist? Can hotspot tracks and other features traditionally associated with mantle plumes be explained in other ways?
4. Comparison of the rocks at different localities in eastern Puget Sound in order to define terrane boundaries:
   • 1) Oyster Ck - Samish Is.; 2) Samish Is - Cap Sante; 3) Cap Sante - Lakeside Quarry; 4) Point Migley - Rosario Head; 5) Alger Quarry - Samish Is.
5. Tectonic origin of certain rock complexes
   • 1) Lakeside quarry, Fidalgo Is.; 2) Pt Migley - Legoe Bay, Lummi Is.; 3) Finney Creek area, North Cascades; 4) Oyster Creek area, Chuckanut Dr.

Frequently Made Errors (the Hall of Shame)

1. "The weight percent of MgO was used to determine..."

   Weight percent is a unit, like "centimeters". You wouldn't say "The centimeters of the specimens were 12-14," now would you? You would say "The length of the specimens was 12-14 cm." Similarly, you should use the term concentration in the above sentence.